Japanese Buddhism becomes an instrument of government in the Edo period
Many of the new Buddhist sects that arose during the Kamakura period entered into fierce competition for influence and distinction during the turbulent medieval period that followed. But as the country came under the control of a strong central government in the Edo period (1603-1868), the sects were reunified under the authority of the shogunate. This stage represented a period of stability and consolidation for Japanese Buddhism and it became an important part of the country's political apparatus, as it helped the government monitor the population and played an important role in collecting taxes.
From conflict to stability
Buddhism in Japan today includes many different sects or schools, each with its own teachings usually based on traditions and doctrines associated with a particular set of sutras. Most of these sects emerged during the Kamakura period (1185-1333) during the years of sect division in the 12th and 13th centuries. Each sect enjoyed the support of a particular social segment in many cases. The sects have been able to maintain their own teachings and temple networks with the support of their believers, who come from different segments of society. During this period, the understanding that Buddhism as a body of teachings could help alleviate human suffering spread throughout Japanese society. This represented a new stage in the history of Buddhism in Japan, as people from different segments of society embraced Buddhist teachings.
In this sense, Buddhism became widespread, and its spread among the people was, of course, a positive thing. But the Buddhism that penetrated society at that time was not a unified religion, but rather a mixture of different schools, each of which had its own set of doctrines and beliefs. If we focus more closely on this aspect, the Middle Ages can be considered an era in which sectarian conflict strongly escalated. Japanese society transformed from one dominated by the aristocracy to a more complex and totalitarian structure of power that included the newly dominant samurai class, as well as farmers and merchants. Buddhism kept pace with these changes and became a more complex and competitive society, with each sect enjoying the support of its own followers drawn from different sectors of society.
Rivalries and conflicts between sects developed at multiple levels, ranging from ideological debates on street corners to actual violence between armed militias . Of course, on the individual level, there were many monks who overlooked that conflict and acted with understanding and tolerance towards other sects. But in general, the medieval period was an era of constantly regular conflicts, in which different sects competed for sovereignty and dominance.
This period of conflict and turmoil continued, with nobles, warriors, merchants, and peasants all participating in the struggle for dominance, until the sixteenth century. But when the Tokugawa shogunate reunited the country under a strong central government, these conflicts were brought under control and a period of political stability began. Until the 16th century, when power was dispersed, Buddhist sects were protected by different authorities and competed for power. But the situation changed once political power was consolidated, and the sects came under the authority of the shogunate.
The Edo period lasted for about 250 years, from the early 17th century until the second half of the 19th century. During this period, Buddhism in Japan enjoyed a long period of stability.
Temples are one of the tools of government control
The unification of Japan's scattered Buddhist sects was not part of the shogunate's plans. The authorities were interested in Buddhism for their own purposes, and were keen to exploit its potential as a tool to help govern the country and maintain order in society. The basic policies of the shogunate government were as follows:
First, grant the sects a certain degree of economic wealth and religious authority, both to reduce discontent and to ensure that the sects submit to government authority. Secondly, exploiting the capabilities of the huge number of Buddhist temples spread throughout the country to monitor and control the population at the individual or family level. Third, the use of Buddhism as a religious bulwark to protect the country from Christianity , as the government suspected that the followers of this religion constituted a vanguard of Western forces wishing to invade and occupy Japan.
These policies were also consistent with the interests of Buddhism, and the sects were happy with them. As a result, the Edo period saw no major conflicts or unrest related to Buddhism, and the sects enjoyed stability and prosperity as they continued their religious activities in accordance with government policies. During this period, two systems were formed that still exist to the present day and continue to play important roles in Japanese Buddhism to this day.
Main Temple – Sub-Temple System (Honzan Matsuji Seido)
All temples under each sect were classified under the guidance of the shogunate, and a strict hierarchy was imposed with a main temple (honzan) at the top followed by a number of subsidiary temples (matsuji). The hierarchical hierarchy that still exists in Japanese Buddhism today is a remnant of this system. This system made it easier for the shogunate to control Buddhism and its followers. In the original form of Buddhism as founded by Shakyamuni in India, all members of the Sangha (monastic community) were equal, and the hierarchy was irrational. Since the Edo period, this system imposed strict classification on all temples, and even led to the emergence of a similar hierarchy among the monks belonging to those temples. These developments introduced a new element of rank distinction into Japanese Buddhism.
Church Welfare System (Danka Seido)
This government-imposed system requires all people in the country to register their family details as 'danka (subjects)' at the local Buddhist temple. This system enabled the shogunate to access personal information about people at the household level, facilitating surveillance of the population. Information about individuals (births, deaths, marriages, travel, and details about someone moving to a new home) was kept in temple records. This is what made temples of great value to the government as an essential part of its mechanism to monitor and control the population. Because this system is implemented on a family basis, it is no longer possible for individuals to choose which temple they want to attend based on their own beliefs. Once a family is registered with a particular temple or sect, it usually remains that way, and subsequent generations of the family automatically continue to be members of the same temple. Even today, it is common for Japanese people to ask “What is your family’s sect?” or “Which temple do you belong to?” That these questions are still routine indicates that this system still works today.
One of the most important purposes of the Danka system was to detect any Christians who still adhered to their banned faith. By linking the entire population to Buddhist temples, the regime sought to make life difficult for Christians. But many Christians secretly remained true to their faith even as they pretended to comply with the rules. Although the two and a half centuries of the Edo period are often portrayed as a time of peace, for Christians in Japan it was a time of harsh and unforgiving religious persecution.
Working under the authority of the shogunate profoundly changed the nature of Japanese Buddhism. The religion lost the energy and ambition that had driven it to expand as much as possible in previous times. Instead, Buddhism was now content to live in peace according to the prevailing situation at that time. In a sense, this was a return to the conditions of early Buddhism, when the monastic community founded by Shakyamuni lived peacefully under the protection of influential local people, but with a big difference. Japanese Buddhism in the Edo period was left undisturbed as it was integrated into the political systems of the shogunate. Secular activities then became an essential part of the work of Buddhist temples, playing an important role in collecting taxes and ensuring people's compliance with laws.
Buddhism as a subject of culture
But at the same time, this period of peace and stability encouraged people to study Buddhism more objectively, and scholars became interested in trying to understand the true nature of the Buddhist religion. Let me list here just some of the important scientific developments of this period.
Scientific analysis of Buddhist texts
Many learned monks made important contributions to the understanding of Buddhism during that period. They subjected a large group of Buddhist texts to rigorous and precise philosophical study, produced scholarly editions of them, and developed Buddhist studies into a field worthy of research and learning. The texts they used were limited to Chinese translations of Buddhist texts – very few scholars in Japan at the time had access to texts in Indian languages – and despite this, a new perspective emerged that treated Buddhism as a subject worthy of serious study.
Moves to restore Vinaya Pitaka
I mentioned in previous parts of this series that one of the things that made Buddhism in Japan unusual was the lack of a true Sangha community. The Vinaya Pitaka system, which aimed to maintain discipline and order within the Sangha community, had no effective force in Japan. During this period, some monks began to realize the disadvantages of not having that community, which led to a movement to bring Buddhism closer to the original teachings of the historical Buddha. This movement was particularly evident in the Shingon sect . Although this movement did not ultimately lead to the revival of a true Sangha community in Japan, it did at least give birth to a community of monks - albeit a small one - who understood that a Buddhism that lacked a true Sangha community was missing something essential to its true nature.
Re-examination of Mahayana Buddhist texts
Buddhists who were not practicing their religion or who were dissatisfied with the position of power and prestige that Buddhism enjoyed under the Tokugawa shogunate began to study the religion from a critical point of view. These skeptical scholars were the first to put forward the view that the contents of the Mahayana canon did not represent the true teachings of the historical Buddha. Tominaga Nakamoto (1715-1746) was perhaps the most influential of these scholars. Tominaga conducted an objective analysis of the Buddhist scriptures and argued on the basis of textual evidence that the Mahayana Sutras and related texts were not the words of the historical Shakyamuni but were in fact written over many centuries by various authors very distant in time and place from the historical Buddha. It is not surprising that this theory angered the Buddhist authorities at the time and they refuted it. But Tominaga's work was reevaluated during the Meiji era (1868–1912), and today it is considered one of the most impressive discoveries in the history of Japanese thought.
The Edo era was generally a good period for Japanese Buddhism, as it consolidated its status and power under the protection of the shogunate. But when the Tokugawa shogunate collapsed in the 1860s, the revolutionary fervor that swept the country radically changed almost all aspects of life nationwide. Even Buddhism was not immune to these disturbances. In fact, the religion was about to face perhaps its biggest crisis since its arrival in Japan, as we will see in the next episode of this series.
(Originally published in Japanese, translated from English. Banner image: A priest addresses family members at a Buddhist funeral. Many families in Japan today still belong to the same Buddhist sect and temple that were assigned to them according to the Danka system in the Edo period.
Pixta )Source : websites