La grande révolte amazighe-2
The reasons for this revolt
From the earliest days of the Muslim conquest of North Africa, Arab commanders treated non-Arab auxiliaries (notably Amazighs) unequally, and often quite meanly. Although the Berbers took part in most of the fighting in the conquest of Spain, they received a lesser share of the spoils and were often assigned to the hardest tasks (for example, the Berbers were thrown at vanguard while the Arab forces were kept in the rear; they were assigned to garrison duties on the most troubled frontiers). Although the Ifriqiyan governor Musa ibn Nusair cultivated his Amazigh lieutenants (the most famous being Tariq ibn Ziyad), his successors, notably Yazid ibn Abi Muslim, treated their Berber forces particularly poorly.
Worse still, Arab governors continued to levy extraordinary dhimmi taxes ( the jizyah and kharâj ) and slave tributes on non-Arab populations who had converted to Islam, in direct violation of Islamic law. . This practice had become particularly common under the caliphates of Walid I (668-715) and Sulayman.
The cause of their Amazigh revolt was the Arab supremacist policy of the Umayyads, which made non-Arab Muslims second-class citizens. Among other things, non-Arab Muslims still had to pay jizyah . These measures were seen as contrary to the teachings of Islam, according to which a person's ethnic identity does not matter.
They revolted because of racial factors. While many integrated with the Arabs because of their Hamito-Semitic similarity, those with Vandal ancestry felt humiliated and revolted.
Not only the Amazighs, but also the Persians and other non-Arab peoples repeatedly revolted under the banner of Islam against Arab oppression, especially that of the Umayyads. The Umayyads somehow believed in Arab supremacy,[xlvii] which went directly against the teachings of the Quran and the Prophet Muhammad. They were responsible for the oppression of many Muslims, including the Companions ( Sahâba ) and the direct family of the Prophet ( Ahlu al-Bayt ). Islam was therefore the most powerful weapon to fight oppression. Among the Persians, it was the shu c ubiyyah movement which fought the oppression of the Umayyads. This word shu c ubiyyah was directly derived from the following verse of the Quran:
يَا أَيُّهَا النَّاسُ إِنَّا خَلَقْنَاكُم مِّن ذَكَرٍ وَأُنثَى وَجَعَلْنَاكُمْ شُعُوباً وَقَبَائِلَ لِتَعَارَفُوا إِنَّ أَكْرَمَكُمْ عِندَ اللَّهِ أَتْقَاكُمْ إِنَّ اللَّهَ عَلِيمٌ خَبِيرٌ
O humanity! We have created you from one (pair) of a male and a female, and have made you into nations (shu c ūb) and tribes (qabâ'il), so that you may know one another. others (and not so that you despise yourself). Verily, the most honored among you with Allah is the most virtuous among you. And Allah has perfect knowledge and is knowledgeable. (Quran: 49, 13)
The Prophet, in his last Sermon, had categorically demonstrated the equality of men in the following terms:
“O people, your Lord is one, and your father is one: you all came from Adam, and Adam came from the earth. The most noble among you in the sight of Allah is the most pious: The Arab has no merit over the non-Arab other than the fear of God. »
Such an emphasis on equality and fraternity is found nowhere else. Islam has therefore become a great moral force for upholding equality and justice. This is why all oppressed peoples fought for their rights under the banner of Islam.
The Maghreb breaks away from the Mashreq
The Berghouata and the mysterious followers of Ha Mim created a form of Islam much more dominated by the Tamazight language and local Berber traditions and lifestyles. Although they are sometimes depicted as "devout heretics" in Maghrebi historiography, the Berghouata are often singled out in the sources for practices that would have been considered "strange" by most tenth-century Muslims.
The Berghouata did not pray five times a day like most Muslims. They did not use a fixed schedule determined by the sun. Rather, they prayed to the crow of a rooster. Although many sources about them, such as Al-Bakri's account are probably biased, it seems that their Quran was written in Tamazight.
The Berghouata existed on the coast of the Sea of Darkness, the Atlantic, from the port of Salé to Safi. They were formed in the 8th century under the leadership of an ancient Kharijite from the time of the Amazigh revolt called Tarif abu Salih. His son, Salih, perhaps inheriting the rebellion from the Kharijite movement, took a step that most Kharijites, no matter how radical, would not have taken.
He rejected not only the authority of the caliphs but also that of the Koran itself, by adding suras. This Berber rewriting of Islam's holiest book occurred even as the fuqahâ' jurists of Fez, Damascus and Baghdad asserted that the Koran was so sacred that it was uncreated, an inviolable manifestation of speech and the being of Allah. By proclaiming verses in Tamazight, he violated a central principle of the Quran, namely that its truth can only be manifested in Arabic and that Arabic is the key that can unlock the doors of belief and paradise.
Among the suras of the Koran of the Berghouata, there was one on the Rooster, one on Harut and Marut of Babel, one on Iblis (the devil in Arabic) and one on the wonders of the world. As with later Amazigh-backed religious movements, one of the main proponents of the Berghouata was Mahdism, a focus on the Mahdi, the one who would usher in the end times.
The Amazigh revolts of the 8th century materialized more among the Berghouatas in the 9th century through the Berberization of the religious field. On this subject, Mehdi Ghouirgate emphasizes the fact that:
''To designate God, the Barġawāta used the same term as the Kharijites, namely Yakūš. They adapted into Berber the formulas of the Muslim dogma "God is unique" (yan Yakūš), "God is great" (muggar Yakūš), "in the name of God" (bi-sm n-Yakūš) and "there is no of god than God” (ūr-d ām Yakūš). There were other movements of this type, but as the textual sources were written in official Sunni circles of the Malikite rite, we only have partial and indirect knowledge of them.
These attempts to berberize Islam were based on Korans in Berber which have not reached us. It is therefore impossible to know whether they were translations or, more certainly, paraphrases; indeed, the bilingual Arabic/Berber texts bear witness to the fact that this was the way it was usually translated at the time. To the Quran itself, suras were added, as in the Barġawāta Quran which included, among others, the suras of the “Rooster”, the “Partridge” or the “Snake”. The appearance of prophets relying on Korans in Berber is a recurring phenomenon in the Maghreb until the fourteenth century , a pivotal period when Sunni Islam of the Malikite rite became firmly established.''
Perhaps imitating the Prophet Muhammad, who was the "seal of the prophets", Salih was called Urya in Berber. It means “the one after whom there will be no other prophet”. Some have called Salih a Jew. Other accounts suggest that a certain Yunis bin Ilyas (842-884) was the one who composed the Berber Quran imposing this heterodox religion by force. [book]
Despite constant attempts by neighboring dynasties to annihilate them, the Berghouata have endured for over three hundred years. Salih, and no longer Muhammad, was proclaimed as the last of the prophets in the western lands of the Maghreb. Their scholars visited Cordoba, and their reign surpassed even the glories of the Umayyad Caliphate in Muslim Spain. The arrival of the Almoravids from the desert in the 11th century put an end to the Berghouata dynasty.
In addition to Salih, al-Maghrib al-Aqsa had another prophet: Ha Mim, who was born into the Berber Majkasa tribe of the Ghumara, which was an important confederation in the Rif mountains in northern Morocco: site many future rebellions throughout the history of this country. Ha Mim, named after two letters of the Arabic alphabet, possibly a reference to the secret letters at the start of many verses in the Quran, flourished until the 10th century.
Like the Berghouata, Ha Mim modified and recast Islam, reducing the required number of daily prayers from five to two. Ramadan, the holy month of fasting, has been reduced from one month to three days. Perhaps reflecting a Majkasa tendency towards matriarchy, women and the power of oracles were central to Ha Mim's prophecy:
“Oh [God] who created the universe for us to see, deliver me from my sins! I believe in Ha Mim and his father Abu Khalif Min Allah; my spirit, my head and my heart, all that is enclosed in my blood and in my flesh [all] believe. I believe in Tabait, aunt of Ha Mim and sister of Abu Khalif Min Allah”
Specifically, Tabait, Ha Mim's maternal aunt, is invoked in many of these prayers. Ibn Khaldun describes her as a magician. Ha Mim's sister, named Debu, was also known for her magic and spells during war and drought. Ibn Khaldun reports that women, especially young women, were famous for their cultivation of magical arts in the Rif until the 14th century.
At the same time, stories of "magical" practices may have simply been an attempt by more orthodox Sunni Muslims to delegitimize both Ha Mim and the Barghwata. What seemed like “magic” from one perspective was a legitimate religious practice that reflected cultural traditions and local notions about women's roles and powers in society.
Conclusion: The Amazigh revolts of the Maghreb are creating a new reality on the ground
It is common to designate 742 or 743 as the "end" of the Great Amazigh Revolt, after the failure of the Berber armies to take Kairouan or Cordoba. But the Berber hold on Morocco, as well as on the western and central parts of Maghrib al-Awsat (central Maghreb, present-day Algeria), will continue, leading to the creation of the state of Barghwata in Tamesna in 744, from the state of Abu Qurra in Tlemcen in 742 and of the Midrarid emirate in Sijilmassa in 758, while the Arab influence will be maintained on Al-Andalus and Ifriqiya, including the eastern part of present-day Algeria.
Later, non-Berber dynasties came to power with the support of the Amazighs, such as the Rustamides, a dynasty of Persian origin who, in 761, established an imamate over the region of Tahert, in modern Algeria , and the Idrisids in Morocco, considered in 789 as the founding dynasty of the modern Moroccan state.
At that time, although not organized as states, many regions were ruled by Kharijite rebels, such as Djerba, Wargla, Sétif, Tozeur, Gafsa and Djebel Nafusa.
The Berber revolts of the 8th century created a new political and geostrategic situation in the Maghreb region forever both politically and religiously. This part of the Muslim world escaped the hegemony of the Muslim empires of the Umayyads and the Abbasids. This specific point is raised by Gabriel Martinez-Gros in an interview he gave to History :
“From the end of the 10th century, we are witnessing a kind of earthquake, landslide, both ethnic and geographical. Firstly, ethnic: the Berbers took power on their own account when the caliphates, the expression par excellence of Arab hegemony over Islam, lost their luster and their authority. The first important Berber dynasty in North Africa is the Zirid dynasty, originating from Algiers. It is designated by the Fatimids of the Arabs to replace them in Tunisia when they leave to settle in conquered Egypt. The Zirids are credited with founding Algiers Al-Jazaïr, "the islands" in Arabic, in the second half of the 10th century. This Berber dynasty appears in 973,
Geographical upheaval then: it is the west of the Maghreb, which takes over for the first time. In the middle of the 11th century, the time of the great Moroccan Berber dynasties began: Almoravid 1055-1147, Almohad 1147-1269 and Merinid 1248-1465, the first two dominating both the Maghreb and Spain. This time of the Berbers extends until the 16th century.
These dynasties – especially the Merinids – had their vassals in western Algeria from the 12th-13th century. It is the beginning of the great rise of Tlemcen, born in the dependence of the powers of Marrakech, and especially of Fez. Tlemcen undoubtedly became the most culturally brilliant city in the territory of present-day Algeria at the end of the Middle Ages. Ibn Khaldun and his brother are at the service of his princes, in the second half of the 14th century.''
Endnotes:
Berber Encyclopedia , Volume 27 Gabriel Camps, ISBN 2857442017 | 9782857442011Sebou
Khleifat, Awad M. “The Caliphate of Hisham b. 'Abd al-Malik (105-125/724-743) with special reference to internal problems. », SOAS Research Online – Thesis , ID: 10.25501/SOAS.00029257
[iii] Dhanun Taha, Abdulwahid. The Muslim Conquest and Settlement of North Africa and Spain. London: Routledge, 2017.
In the 7th and 8th centuries, the Muslim Arabs conquered large areas of North Africa and then, with the help of their ancient adversaries in North Africa, the Berbers, won a decisive victory over the Visigoths in Spain. This book, first published in 1989 and based on Arab and other sources, describes the process of conquest and colonization, describing first the lack of unity in North Africa and the corruption and insolvency in Spain who made this progress possible. It provides an invaluable classification of Arab and Berber settlers in Spain by tribal origin, area of settlement and time of entry. This book highlights the importance of economic and administrative relations between North Africa and Spain. It describes the growing resentment of early settlers in Spain at the restrictions on their autonomy imposed by the Governor General of North Africa and the Caliphate. It describes growing tensions between old and new settlers and between different tribal groups, which ultimately culminated in the Berber Revolt..
The Kharijites (Arabic, romanized: al-Khawārij, Arabic singular:, romanized: khāriji), also called ash-Shurat (Arabic: الشراة, romanized: al-Shurāt), were an Islamic sect that emerged during the first Muslim civil war (656-661). The early Kharijites were supporters of Ali who rebelled against his acceptance of arbitration talks to settle the dispute with his challenger, Mu'awiya, at the Battle of Siffin in 657. They claimed that "judgement belongs to God alone”, which became their motto, and that rebels such as Mu'awiya had to be fought and defeated according to Quranic injunctions. Ali defeats the Kharijites at the Battle of Nahrawan in 658, but their insurrection continues. Ali was assassinated in 661 by a Kharijite who sought revenge on Nahrawan.
See Watt, W. Montgomery. Islamic Philosophy and Theology . Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1985.
Maysar al-Matghari (Berber: Maysar Amteghri or Maysar Amdeghri, Arabic:; sometimes rendered Maisar or Meicer; in older Arabic sources, bitterly called: al-Ḥaqir ("the ignoble one"); died in September/October 740) was a Berber rebel leader and the initial architect of the Great Berber Revolt that broke out in 739-743 against the Muslim Umayyad Empire. However, he was deposed by the rebels, replaced by another Berber leader, and either died or was possibly executed by them in 740. Three years after his death, the Berber revolt succeeded in defeating the Umayyad armies.
https://www.google.com/search?q=The+reasons+behind+the+Berber+Revolt&sxsrf=ALiCzsa6MuH6I0daX5OuAoalhF56paVrFw:1652065905369&ei=cYZ4YuWOFoT1sAfy3YzIAg&start=30&sa=N&ved=2ahUKEwili72LudH3AhWEOuwKHfIuAyk4FBDw0wN6BAgBEE0&biw=1366&bih=657&dpr=1
Omar-toons. ''North Africa After the Berber Revolt (739-743 CE)'', World History Encyclopedia , January 07, 2020. https://www.worldhistory.org/image/11665/north-africa-after-the-berber- revolt-739-743-ce/
Fournel, Henri. Study on the Conquest of Africa by the Arabs . Paris: Imperial Printing, 1857.
Fournell, Henry. Study on the Conquest of Africa by the Arabs . Paris: National Printing Office, 1875. http://www.berberemultimedia.fr/bibliotheque/ouvrages_2005/Fournel_Berbers1_1875.pdf
Fournel, Henri, 1799-1876, Gustave Dugat, and Louis Olivier Harty de Pierrebourg. The Berbers: A Study of the Conquest of Africa by the Arabs, Based on Printed Arabic Texts. Paris: National Printing Office, 1875-81.
Naylor, Phillip C. North Africa: A History from Antiquity to the Present . Austin. Austin, Texas: University of Texas Press, 2009.
North Africa has been a vital crossroads throughout history, serving as a link between Africa, Asia and Europe. Paradoxically, however, the historical significance of the region has been chronically underestimated. In a work that could lead scholars to rethink the concept of Western civilization by integrating the role played by the peoples of North Africa in shaping the "West", Phillip Naylor describes a region whose cross-cultural heritage serves pivotal point on the political, economic and social levels.
Ideal for novices and specialists alike, North Africa begins by acknowledging that defining this region has presented challenges throughout history. Naylor's study encompasses the Paleolithic period and early Egyptian cultures, taking readers through Pharaonic dynasties, conflicts with Rome and Carthage, the rise of Islam, the growth of the Ottoman Empire, European incursions and postcolonial perspectives for Egypt, Libya, Tunisia, Algeria, Morocco and Western Sahara.
By emphasizing the importance of encounters and interactions between civilizations, North Africa draws a promising future for studies on this pivotal region.
Chtatou, Mohamed. ''Al-Kahina, an Amazigh queen stigmatized by the Arabs'', Le Monde Amazigh, May 7, 2021. https://amadalamazigh.press.ma/fr/al-kahina-une-reine-amazighe-stigmatisee-par- the-arabs/
Moderan, Yves. “Koceila”, Berber Encyclopedia , nos. 28-29, June 1, 2008, pp. 4255-4264. https://journals.openedition.org/encyclopediaberbere/101
''The origin, identity and action of this major figure in the history of Berber resistance to the Arab conquest in the years 670-680 have been the subject of much controversy. Its initial territory has been located sometimes in the Aures, sometimes in Mauretania Cesarean, and even recently in northern or central Morocco. Some have seen in him a Roman or Berber-Roman notable whose history was distorted by the Arabs; others recognized him, on the contrary, as the leader of a purely Berber resistance, "in line with that of Massinissa and Jugurtha". Everything or almost ready for discussion in his career, above all because of difficult heuristic problems: it is only explicitly mentioned by Arab authors, and in texts at least two centuries after the events,
Clarke, Nicolas. '' 'They are the most treacherous of people': religious difference in Arabic accounts of three early medieval Berber revolts'', eHumanista 24, 2013. https://www.ehumanista.ucsb.edu/sites/secure.lsit.ucsb .edu.span.d7_eh/files/sitefiles/ehumanista/volume24/ehum24.clarke.pdf
“ʿAbd al-Malik b. Ḥabīb, a jurist and historian who died in the middle of the ninth century, concluded his account of the eighth-century Muslim conquest of his native Iberia with an extended dialogue scene, set at the court of the Umayyad caliphate (r. 661-750 ) in Damascus. The dialogue is between Mūsā b. Nuṣayr, the commander of the conquest armies, and Sulaymān b. ʿAbd al-Malik, who had recently succeeded his brother al-Walīd as caliph. It takes a conventional form: a series of questions from the caliph (“Tell me about al-Andalus!”) are met with responses that have the ring of aphorism. Here stereotypes dwell, not least in the comments on Berbers: [Sulaymān] said, “Tell me about the Berbers.” [Mūsā] replied, “They are the non-Arabs who most resemble the Arabs (hum ashbah al-ʿajam bi-al-ʿarab) [in their] bravery, steadfastness, endurance and horsemanship, except that they are the most treacherous of people (al-nās) – they [have] no [care for] loyalty, nor for pacts.” (Ibn Ḥabīb, 148)''
Brett, Michael & Elizabeth Fentress. The Berbers . Oxford: Blackwell, 1997, p. 86.
On Sijilmasa see Ronald Messier, Ronald & James Miller. The Last Civilized Place: Sijilmasa and its Saharan Destiny . Austin, TX: University of Texas Press, 2015.
Sénac, Philippe & Patrice Cressier. "Chapter 3. The Berber revolts", History of the medieval Maghreb. 7th-11th century , under the direction of Sénac Philippe, Cressier Patrice. Paris: Armand Colin, 2012, p. 37-43.
Dhimmî (Arabic: ḏhimmî , collectively ʾahl aḏh-dhimmah "the covenant people") is a historical term for non-Muslims living in a Muslim state with legal protection, loyalty to that state, and payment from the jizyah tax , unlike the zakât , or obligatory alms, paid by Muslim subjects. Dhimmi were exempt from certain duties assigned specifically to Muslims if they paid the poll tax ( jizyah ) , but were otherwise equal under the laws of property, contracts, and obligations.
Cf. Bosworth, CE ''The Concept of Dhimma in Early Islam'', in Braude, Benjamin & B. Lewis, eds., Christians and Jews in the Ottoman Empire: The Functioning of a Plural Society, 2 vols. New York: Holmes & Meier Publishing, 1982.
See Glenn, H. Patrick. Legal Traditions of the World . Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007, p. 218–219.
“ A Dhimmi is a non-Muslim subject of a state governed in accordance with sharia law. The term connotes an obligation of the state to protect the individual, including the individual's life, property, and freedom of religion and worship, and required loyalty to the empire, and a poll tax known as the jizya, which complemented the Islamic tax paid by the Muslim subjects, called Zakat.”
“ A Dhimmi is a non-Muslim subject of a state governed in accordance with Sharia. The term connotes an obligation of the state to protect the individual, including the individual's life, property, and freedom of religion and worship, and requires loyalty to the empire, and a known poll tax under the name of jizya, which supplemented the Islamic tax paid by Muslim subjects, called Zakat.''
Al-jizyah is mentioned in the Quran (9:29). The word comes from the Arabic root jaza , which means to compensate. In this case, it is compensation for the security and protection that non-Muslims have in the Islamic State without fighting for the defense of the country. Historically, non-Muslims had to pay jizyah for two reasons: for their exemption from having to wage Muslim wars and for exemption from zakat . A person's conversion to Islam freed them from the obligation to pay jizyah but made them subject to jihad and zakat .
Cf. Dennett, Daniel C. Conversion and the Poll Tax in Early Islam . Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1950.
Kharâj (Arabic: is a type of individual Islamic tax on agricultural land and its products developed under Islamic law. With the first Muslim conquests in the 7th century, kharaj initially denoted a lump-sum duty levied on the lands of conquered provinces, which was collected by the waiting officials of the defeated Byzantine Empire to the west and the Sassanid Empire to the is, later and more broadly, kharâj refers to the land tax levied by Muslim rulers on their non-Muslim subjects, collectively known as dhimmi . At that time, kharaj was synonymous with jizyah, which later emerged as a head tax paid by dhimmi . Muslim landowners, on the other hand, paid lcushr , a religious tithe on the land, which carried a much lower tax rate, and zakât . lcushr was a 10% levy on agricultural land as well as goods imported from states that taxed Muslims on their products.
See Watt, W. Montgomery. Islamic Political Thought: The Basic Concepts . Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1980.
The Sufrites (Arabic: الصفرية aṣ-Ṣufriyya) were Khariji Muslims in the seventh and eighth centuries. They established the Midrarid state in Sijilmassa, present day Morocco. In Tlemcen, Algeria, the Banu Ifran were Sufi Berbers who opposed the rule of the Umayyad, Abbasid and Fatimid caliphates, especially in resistance movements led by Abu Qurra (8th century) and Abu Yazid.
The Khawarij were divided into distinct groups such as the Sufri, Azariqa, Bayhasiyya, Ajardi, Najdat and Ibadi. Only the Ibadi continue to exist today. This current was developed by Ziyâd ben al-Asfar [ziyād ben al-aṣfar]).
See Burlot, Joseph. The Islamic Civilization . Paris: Hachette, 1982.
On the Ibadis in North Africa, see: Gaiser, Adam. Muslims, Scholars and Soldiers: The Origins and Elaborations of Ibadi Imamate Traditions . Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010.
On the literature and history of the Ibadis of North Africa and Oman, see also: Gaiser, Adam. Muslims, Scholars, Soldiers: The Origin and Elaboration of the Ibadi Imamate Traditions . Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010.
Hrbek, Ivan. Africa from the Seventh to the Eleventh Century , vol. 3rd. Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1992, p. 131.
"Reviews", Language and Society , vol. 97, no. 3, 2001, p. 101-112.
Benrabah, Mohamed. Languages and power in Algeria- History of a linguistic trauma . Paris: Edition Séguier, The Columns of Hercules, 1999.
Hart, David M. Middle East Journal , vol. 44, no. 4, 1990, p. 723–25, http://www.jstor.org/stable/4328216
Coope, Jessica A. “Berbers and Muwallads”, in Coope, Jessica A. The Most Noble of People: Religious, Ethnic, and Gender Identity in Muslim Spain . Ann Arbor, Michigan: University of Michigan Press, 2017, pp. 128–43. http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.3998/mpub.9297351.9
Ibn Khaldun. History of the Berbers and Muslim Dynasties of North Africa . Translation by Baron Mac Guckin de Slane. Algiers: government printing, 1852, pp. 216-17.
This book deals with the history of the Berber and Arab tribes of North Africa (Sanhaja, Maghrawa, Zenata, Zwawa, etc.) from the arrival of Islam until the time of Ibn Khaldûn (1332, m .1406). It reviews the small and the big events that this region experienced, as well as the arrival of Arab and Berber Muslims in Spain. With great detail, Ibn Khaldûn traces a chronology of the rise and fall of Arab and Berber dynasties and kingdoms (Almohads, Hafsids, Fatimids, etc.).
The cohabitation between these two peoples (Arabs and Berbers), Islamized a few decades apart in the first century of the Hegira, was certainly conflictual at its beginnings, but this cohabitation knew how to change thereafter into a real fusion. The knowledge of its own history, for a nation or a people, can be likened to the roots of a tree. Peoples are nourished by their history like a tree through its roots.
Montel, Aurelien. “Rethinking the revolt in the Umayyad Maghreb (end of the 4th/10th century): collective strategies and issues of legitimacy”. Society of Medieval Historians of Public Higher Education. Contesting in the Middle Ages: from disobedience to revolt: XLIX Congress of the SHMESP (Rennes, 2018). Paris: Editions de la Sorbonne, 2019, pp. 239-251. http://books.openedition.org/psorbonne/55287 .
Amazigh World. “Maysara Madghari, the Amazigh rebel against the Umayyads”, Amazigh World, July 5, 2019. http://www.amazighworld.org/history/index_show.php?id=642655
Blankinship, Khalid Yahya. The End of the Jihad State: The Reign of Hisham Ibn 'Abd Al-Malik and the Collapse of the Umayyads . Albany, NY: SUNY Press, 1994, p. 209.
Stretching from Morocco to China, the Umayyad Caliphate based its expansion and success on the doctrine of jihad – an armed struggle to claim the entire earth for the rule of God, a struggle that brought much material success during a century but came to a sudden halt after the collapse of the ruling Umayyad dynasty in 750 CE. The End of the Jihad State demonstrates for the first time that the cause of this collapse is not only due to internal conflict, as has been claimed, but to a number of external and simultaneous factors which have exceeded the capacity reaction of the caliphate.
Julien, Charles-André. History of North Africa . Paris: Payot, 1961, p. 30.
En-Noweiri. History of the Province of Africa and Maghrib , translated from Arabic by Baron Mac Guckin de Slane”, Asian Journal , 1841, p.442.
MacGuckin de Slane, William. History of the province of Africa and Maghrib, translated from the Arabic of En-Noweiri. Paris: National Printing Office, 1842.
Mercier, E. History of North Africa, V.1 . Paris: Leroux, 1888. Republished by Elibron Classics, 2005.
These are Umayyad ( Jund ) troops comprising the Jund of Dimashq (Damascus), Hims (Homs), al-Urdunn (Jordan), Filastin (Palestine), and Qinnasrin.
The exact year of the battle remains uncertain, as several sources give conflicting dates. Khalid Blankinship advances the date of Dhu al Hija 123/ October-November 741 CE.
Lévi-Provençal, Évariste. History of Muslim Spain , Volume 1. Paris: Maisonneuve Larose, 1999.
Ibn Khaldun. History of the Berbers and Muslim Dynasties of North Africa . Op.cit., p. 361.
Blankinship, Khalid Yahya. The End of the Jihad State: The Reign of Hisham Ibn 'Abd Al-Malik and the Collapse of the Umayyads , op. cit., p. 211.
Ibid.
Dozy, Reinhart Pieter Anne. History of the Muslims of Spain: until the conquest of Andalusia by the Almoravids (711-1110) . Leiden: Brill, 1861.
Blankinship, Khalid Yahya. The End of the Jihad State: The Reign of Hisham Ibn 'Abd Al-Malik and the Collapse of the Umayyads . Op.cit., p. 212.
Fournel, Henri. Study on the Conquest of Africa by the Arabs . Paris: Impermerie Imperiale, 1857, p.79.
Fournel, Henri. Study on the conquest of Africa by the Arabs , op. cit., p. 79.
This petty and haughty behavior has not changed one iota even today. The Moroccan SNRT al-Oula television channel broadcast during Ramadan 2022 a Kuwaiti soap opera ''Fath al-Andalus'' in which Tariq ibn Zayad is presented as an Arab and not a Berber military leader, which aroused ire Moroccan spectators, see the excellent article by columnist Mouna Hachim entitled: ''Arab fictions and "Berber" revolts'' in Le 360 of April 9, 2022: https://fr.le360.ma/blog/la-chronique -de-mouna-hachim/arabic-fictions-and-berber-revolts-258073
Dhanun Taha, Abdulwahid. The Muslim Conquest and Settlement of North Africa and Spain, op. cit., p. 198.
Martinez-Gros, Gabriel. “The routes of the Conquest: the Umayyad conquest of al-Andalus”. The Umayyad ideology: The construction of the legitimacy of the Caliphate of Cordoba (10th-11th centuries). By Martinez-Gros. Madrid: Casa de Velázquez, 1992, pp. 81-112. http://books.openedition.org/cvz/2075
Chtatou, Mohamed. “The Berghoutas, an extraordinary Amazigh dynasty”, Inumiden, August 7, 2021. https://www.inumiden.com/les-berghouatas-une-dynastie-amazighe-hors-norme/
Al-Bakri. Description of Northern Africa , translation by De Slane, 2nd ed. Algiers: A. Jourdan, 1913.
John Iskander, John. “Devout Heretics: the Barghawata in Maghribi Historiography”, Journal of North African Studies 12, 2007, pp. 37–53.
Langhade, Jacques. “Chapter I. The language of the Koran and the Ḥadīṯ”, in Langhade, Jacques. From the Koran to Philosophy: The Arabic Language and the Formation of Farabi's Philosophical Vocabulary. Damas: Presses de l'Ifpo, 1994, pp. 17-82. http://books.openedition.org/ifpo/5268
Ibn Khaldun. History of the Berbers , vol. 1. Algiers: Editions Berti, 2001, p. 295–301.
Ghouirgate, Mehdi. “Berber in the Middle Ages. A linguistic culture in the process of reconstitution”, Annales. History, Social Sciences , vol. 70, no. 3, 2015, p. 577-606. https://www.cairn.info/revue-annales-2015-3-page-577.htm
Iskander, “Devout Heretics: The Barghawata in Maghribi Historiography”, op. cit., pp. 37–53.
Talbi, Mohammad. “Heresy, acculturation and nationalism of the Bargawata Berbers”, in Galley, Micheline & David Marshall, eds. Proceedings of the First Congress of Mediterranean Studies of Arab-Berber Influence . Algiers: National publishing and distribution company, 1973, pp. 221–226.
Ibn Khaldun. History of the Berbers , op. cit., p. 308.
Rustamid kingdom, Islamic state (761-909) in the highlands of northern Algeria, founded by followers of the Ibaḍīyah branch of Khārijism. It was one of many kingdoms that rose up in opposition to the new Abbasid dynasty and its eastern orientation. The Khārijites preached a puritanical, democratic and egalitarian theocracy which found support among the Berber tribes. The state was ruled by imams descended from ʿAbd al-Raḥmān ibn Rustam, the austere Persian who had founded it. These imams were themselves under the supervision of religious leaders and the chief justice. The kingdom was renowned for its religious tolerance and secular knowledge. The state was very active in trans-Saharan trade, and its size fluctuated according to the power of its rulers.
History. ''Once upon a time the Berbers'', Gabriel Martinez-Gros in collections 55, April – June 2012. https://www.lhistoire.fr/il-%C3%A9tait-une-fois-les-berb%C3 %A8res
https://fr.akalpress.com/6230-la-grande-revolte-amazighe/