5000years of the Tifinagh epic from rock to digitization
Amazigh lines in the caves beginning in its formation
Introduction to the Amazigh language (Tifinagh) Preface: When we talk about the Amazigh language and make it a focus for research and study, it is necessary to address the Amazigh writing as a carrier of the Amazigh cultural heritage since ancient times.
This writing is the basis of the ontological being of the Amazigh person and the true iconic and pictorial expressive of his thoughts, feelings, conscience, and mental, mental, emotional, and motor imagination. It is necessary to trace the Amazigh writing and its basic line in order to know its civilizational and cultural manifestations and to extrapolate its development at the level of codification and documentation in order to know the history of the Amazigh man and his intellectual, practical and creative achievements. And all this because Amazigh writing helps researchers and scholars through its well-established inscriptions on caves, rocks, stones and caves in the mountains, valleys, cities and deserts, and through its funeral evidence and carpet decorations, and through the decorative phenomenon of tattooing, to identify the civilization of the Amazighs, their culture, their ways of living and ways of adapting to the nature that surrounds them.
So, what is Amazigh writing? What are its linguistic and iconographic characteristics? What are the most important developments known to this writing throughout the history of the Amazigh entity? These are the questions that we will monitor in this topic.
1/ Amazigh family :
A graphic showing the Amazigh language family
It is known in philology that the Amazigh language is one of the ancient languages that belong to the Hamitic family, along with Egyptian, Amazigh and Kushite. It has been agreed to be included in one group, although the ties of kinship between them are weak, and therefore some of them consider each branch of it independent with its head separately. The
Amazigh language is in fact the language of the indigenous people of North Africa (Tunisia, Morocco, Algeria, Tripoli, the desert and the adjacent islands). Tamashekia, which is the language of the Tuareg tribes.
As for Kushite, it is the language of the indigenous people of the eastern part of Africa, and it is spoken by about a third of the population of Abyssinia. There are regions in Abyssinia that speak a Semitic language.”
Amazigh drawings spread all over North Africa
Many linguistic scholars, in their linguistic interventions and research, say that Amazigh is a branch of the languages of the Semitic family, while Ahmed Bokus believes that it is "an independent language in terms of the genetic relationship with respect to classical Arabic, as Amazigh belongs to the so-called family of Hamitic languages, while Arabic is included within the family of Semitic languages." , although these two families share at a higher level within the Hamitic-Semitic family and the African-Asian family.
Hence, it becomes clear to us that there are those who include the Amazigh language within the Hamitic family, and those who include it within the Semitic family, and those who include it within the Japhite family, and there are those who consider it an independent linguistic entity by itself. This, Tamazight is one of the oldest international alphabets along with the hieroglyphic alphabet, the Greek alphabet and the Egyptian alphabet, and it is also one of the oldest alphabets in Africa alongside the Ethiopian alphabet known as Meroitic..
2/ Geography of the Amazigh language :
The Amazigh language has spread in North Africa, or the so-called Tamazgha country, for at least 5,000 years, as evidenced by a group of archaeological inscriptions and documents. The Amazigh linguistic patch since the dawn of ancient history extends from the Egyptian borders of Siwa and northern Sudan in the east to the Canary Islands in the Atlantic Ocean in the west, and from Andalusia and Sicily in the north to sub-Saharan countries such as Mauritania, Mali, Niger and Burkina Faso. inhabiting the Far East of Morocco.
The Amazigh linguistic field and its diversity
The Amazigh language is also found in abundance outside its original patch in the Netherlands, France, Belgium, Germany, Spain, and the Spanish Canary Islands inhabited by the Guanches who used to speak Canary Berber before the Spanish colonization eliminated the Amazigh language in it. The Guanches are still defending the Amazigh language and are seriously striving to revive it and resurrect it again.
In his book "History of North Africa", Charles Andre Julien refers to a study conducted by William Marcy, which concluded that "the percentage of Amazigh speakers is 23% in Libya, 1% in Tunisia, and 27% in Oran province. This percentage has exceeded 40% in Al-Aqsa Morocco." But the matter is nothing more than linguistic differences. There is no greater mistake than believing - as some have often done - that the division between the colloquial speakers and the Amazigh speakers reflects an opposition between an Arab race and an Amazigh race. The matter only indicates that the Berber dialects settled in mountainous regions. harder for the invaders, while in other quarters it yielded to language more in keeping with social exigencies.” Amazigh is spoken by more than 40 million people, and it is a national language in Niger and Algeria, but Morocco and Tunisia have not yet recognized it, nor have they subjected it to the legal constitution and official legitimacy, but it is absolutely and arbitrarily forbidden in Libya.
The Amazigh language is divided into several dialects, namely: Tamazight, Tarifit, and Tashelhit in Morocco, the Kabyle dialect, the Chaoui dialect, the Bani Mozab dialect, the Bani Saleh dialect in Algeria, the Zwari dialect, the Nafusi dialect, the Ghadamsi dialect, the Awjilah dialect, the Sakan dialect in Libya, and the Tuareg dialect in the country. The Tuareg bordering Algeria, Mali and Niger, and the Siwi dialect in Egypt. As for Tunisia, we can talk about the groups of Sakia, Majoura, Sanad, Tamzrat, Chenine, Douerat and Djerba. There is a group of Aznagan or Znakah on the Mauritanian-Senegalese border.
And we can put another division for the spread of Amazigh according to the tribes. In general, there are major dialects that can be limited to: the Zanat dialects, the Masmoudi dialects, and the Sanhaji dialects.
The Zenati dialects are widely spread in Algeria, Tunisia and Libya and are found to a lesser extent in Morocco.
As for the Masmoudi dialects, they are widely found in Al-Aqsa Morocco.
As for the Sanhaji dialects, they spread here and there in specific regions in the two Maghribs: the Middle and the Far East, and in the southern regions bordering the Sahara.
3/ The concept of the word Tifinagh :
The writing of the Berbers is called Tifinagh or Tifinag, meaning our line, our writing, or our invention. 1300 texts.
Tifinagh inscription of graves from the Chemtou site in northwest Tunisia
The views of the Arabist trend depend on yellow books that are not based on scientific sources or logical arguments. Human affiliation with the sons of Noah is just an Israeli-Jewish myth that was not mentioned in ancient civilizations at all. On the other hand, the genes of the North African population have nothing to do with the Mashreqa or the Gulf. Human populations appeared in Africa, migrations and movements took place from Africa to various parts of the world, and the second human population was discovered in Boucharit near Setif, Algeria, estimated at 2.4 million years.
Likewise, there is no linguistic correspondence between Tamazight and the languages of the Middle East and the Arabian Peninsula, despite the difference in features, customs and traditions.
On the other hand, some scholars believe that Tifinagh is derived from Phoenician and Phenicia. This means that the Amazigh language is a branch of the Phoenician-Canaanite alphabet.
In this, Abd al-Rahman al-Jilali says, "The Berbers came to the Canaanite Phoenician language, when they found its closeness to their language and because of the ethnic communication between them and the Phoenicians."
And Dr. Ezzedine Al-Manasra goes to the fact that the Amazigh language and its alphabet are Phoenician in origin, Canaanite in origin, and have Arabic roots and origins: “The Amazigh language has multiple dialects and is capable of evolving into a sophisticated language such as Arabic, and writing it in Tuareg letters (Tifinagh) is the origin. This probably indicates that the Amazigh language is Canaanite Carthaginian, and the Canaanite Carthaginian Phoenician was not the language of invaders, because the Phoenician Carthaginians are the second wave of Canaanites.Since the true origin of the Berbers is that they are Palestinian and Lebanese Canaanites in particular, the original inhabitants of Algeria, the Berber Berbers, That is, the first wave of the Canaanites received their Canaanite brothers, the Phoenicians, not as invaders, but as a continuation of the first wave, and it was only natural after that that they mixed with the Romans, Greeks, and Latins.The original is that Tamazight is written in Tifinagh, Tawarqi, Canaanite, Carthaginian, and Phoenician letters, and the origin of these letters goes back to the Canaanite Phoenician and Yemeni Arabic Geez.
Anyway, the word Tifinagh does not mean a reference to the Phoenician writing, but rather we mean by it the writing, the calligraphy, the sign, or the letter that was invented by the Berbers. And it was not imported or transmitted from a people, so all opinions go to contain the Berber history and distort it in order to exploit its libraries.
4/ Characteristics of ancient Berber writing :
A- Berber writing in Tifinagh script:
The history of Amazigh writing (Tifinagh) dates back to distant historical periods that are difficult to determine precisely, and there are researchers who date it back to 3000 BC, or even to 5000 BC. Masinissa, however, the Algerian researcher was able to find tablets written on it in Tifinagh, and the researcher concerned here is Malika Hashid, a historian and archaeologist who conducted examinations on the found Tifinagh, and found that it dates back to one thousand five hundred years BC, which made some people think it is likely to be Tifinagh. It is the oldest phonetic writing known to man.
Coin in Old Tifinagh script
The plate bearing the letters of Tifinagh is one of the paintings accompanying the horse carriages, and this type of chariot appeared in the era between one thousand years BC and one thousand five hundred years BC, which made Gabriel Campus see that Tifinagh could not have appeared at a time less than a thousand years ago. Birth.
And if there are several hypotheses about the origin of Tifinagh, starting from the Phoenician origin to the local Amazigh origin, then the research has not yet settled in any case, which is summarized by Gabriel Campus and Carl Perse in that despite all attempts to classify, knowledge of the origin of Tifinagh remains elusive.
Hence, Tifinagh is a little-known writing, but it is so old that it deserves attention, given that primitive Tifinagh almost dates back to three thousand years BC. It seems that this Amazigh writing, which is also called primitive Tifinagh or primitive Libyan writing, appeared with the caged man, relative to the Tunisian city of Gafsa. So that Tifinagh appeared as primitive graphics that could be read, and some even made them legible letters.
The Tifinagh script was used in writing on tombstones, caves, caves, rocks, inscriptions, carpets, jewelry, coin minting, body tattoos, decoration, decoration, and marking erected historical memorials. And if the Berber line was used a lot in the valleys and mountains (the Atlas Mountains) and desert areas (the country of the Tuareg), it was not used much in the cities due to the dominance of the invaders from the Romans, the Vandals, the Byzantines and the Arab conquerors on its wheels and facilities, and naturalized it in the language of the colonial conqueror.
Monuments written in Tifinagh script during the reign of the Numbedian Kingdom
The Tifinagh script was influenced in its historical path by the Phoenician-Canaanite writing, Egyptian writing, Greek writing, Libyan writing, Latin writing, and Arabic writing, especially at the level of movements and sounds. Bouziani al-Darraji believes that "there is something similar between the Berber (Libyan) and what was discovered in writing in southern Spain, in addition to the similarity between it and the Etruscan line and other Greek sub-lines.... Perhaps this is the result of the frictions that occurred during different historical periods. But what is most likely to be mentioned is The strong link between the Amazigh language and the Hamitic languages in the first place, and then the Semitic languages in a second degree.
Hence, the Berber language in the country of Tamazgha remained the language of circulation and communication for many Berbers, despite the policies of integration, Romanization and naturalization to which they were subjected. They never left their original language, rather they preserved it a lot, especially in remote areas from cities, and they also preserved the writing of Tifinagh, but to a lesser extent compared to the language circulating orally. Currently in a vast area extending from the borders of the Algerian-Libyan desert to Niger and from Hoggar to the borders of Niger-Valtan and Niger-Nigerian, but more than this, this Amazigh line has become fighting illiteracy in Niger, where the Tamazight language has become the official national language among other Nigerian languages (Tamazight, Bambara, Paul, Sunak) and also in Mali.
And if the Tifinagh script was used to reduce illiteracy in Niger, then in Morocco and Algeria it is still used as a “national heritage” after it lost in these two countries its basic function, which is writing, and it became employed for decoration and beautification, such as fixing it on bodies, tattooing it, or immortalizing it in some artistic images. And an inscription, and so we find some "tribal" associations that bring him back to life and resurrect him again, especially the "Agrao Amazigh" association, which uses the typewriter to write Tifinagh, and the "Unity of the Amazigh People" association.
Tuareg woman teaches her children the Amazigh language in Tifinagh script
However, the openness of Morocco, government, palace, and people to the Amazigh culture, with the speech of Ajdir in 2001, will give through the official royal speech a new impetus to the modern Amazigh lesson, and immediately after this speech, the Royal Institute of Amazigh Culture will be inaugurated, which will administratively and officially approve in its sessions, meetings and seminars the Tifinagh script as an official line of the language. Amazigh after a great controversy among the members of the Board of Directors of the Institute, especially among those who defend the Latin line and the Arabic language line and the Tifinagh line.
This, and the ancient Tamazight is written as it is known from top to bottom at the beginning, as reflected in the inscriptions, rocks and caves, to be adapted from all sides, from top to bottom, from bottom to top, from right to left, and from left to right. Writing continued in this way until the end of the nineteenth century AD, until the Tuareg changed the formula for writing from right to left, similar to the Arabic language. However, the Algerian researcher Bouziani Al-Daraji believes that this change began with the Phoenicians: "In the Phoenician era, the writing of "Teng" became written from right to left, just like the Phoenician script.
It is known that the Berber writing is silent and non-vowel letters, which initially consisted of 16 silent letters Consonnes, and after that it became 23 letters during the era of the Numidian Mazilian kingdom. Some vowels will be added to it, voyelles, with the Arab conquest of North Africa, and they will be called: “Tidbakken.” These vowels are: fatha, damma, and kasra. The Amazigh alphabet is called "Agamak", so that Tifinagh today consists of 33 letters, of which 29 are silent letters and 4 are vowels.
One of the characteristics of the ancient Amazigh script is that it is a silent line similar to the ideogramme, which expresses an idea, an object, or an image. The font is also devoid of Voyelles, and this font is present in geometric shapes such as circles, triangles, points, open and closed lines, intersecting lines, and various oblique lines.
The first lecture in the 20th century on the Amazigh language and Tifinagh in Tizi Ouzou
This, and the Berbers in North Africa left us more than a thousand inscriptions on rocks, caves and tombstones, and "they left a number of memorial inscriptions in Tunisia and Algeria in particular, in which what is accompanied by its Latin or Phoenician translation; the researcher George Marcy made a serious attempt to explain it However, most of the ancient Amazigh inscriptions are still waiting for specialists who are required to master the Amazigh language first, and then one of the following dead languages: Phoenician, Greek or Latin.
The Tifinagh alphabet, according to the Algerian researcher Bouziani al-Daraji, descended from "an ancient Lubyan alphabet, and it is still used - these days - among the Tuareg circles; it is characterized by being a consonantique silent language; and it was initially written separately in all directions: from right to north, and from left." To the right, then from top to bottom, and from bottom to top, and its letters are not complete yet... This writing, known as Libyan or Lubiyya, was widespread throughout the ancient Maghreb.
And the writing of Tifinagh appeared during the camel era. It is known that the Amazigh person in his activities knew several stages and eras, such as the era of hunters from 5000 to 3500 BC, the era of shepherds that prevailed from 3500 BC to 1000 BC, and the era of the horse that prevailed in the last thousand BC. And the era of beauty, whose signs appeared during the hundred years preceding the Gregorian date. As for the era of the camel, which has one hump, of course, this animal appears in it through drawings of less quality and technical perfection than what was known in previous periods, such as the era of hunters and the era of shepherds. Engraved and drawn It seems that this era lasted a long time, so that the Islamic period can be integrated into it, because some inscriptions began to show Arabic letters in addition to the letters of Tifinagh
Tamazight was written in the Arabic script starting from the twelfth and thirteenth centuries with Ibn Tumart, who translated the book "The Creed" into the Berber language using Arabic script. However, in the eighteenth century AD, Amazigh writings written in Arabic script will spread exactly in the Souss region, such as the Amazigh poetry attributed to Sidi Hamo Al-Talib and other books of poetry, religion, mysticism, history and biographies. This authorship accompanied the Islamic phase and the Arab conquests of North Africa, as well as with the influence of Amazigh intellectuals on Muslim scholars in various knowledge, arts and sciences. In this regard, Ahmed Bokus says: "As for the Islamic stage, historians, especially the authors of the annals and biographies, talk about an insignificant number of references written in the Amazigh language, including the religious literature of the Kharijites, the Barghawati and the Almohads, but most of them have disappeared. We no longer keep from them except for some of the proper names." Humanity and flags of places and some scattered sentences. Even the poems of Sidi Hamou al-Talib, which may help to extrapolate the general features of the eighteenth century Berbers, some of them did not reach us except through oral narration. Thus, one of the oldest written works in Berber is the work of jurists such as Aznag and Uzal. Perhaps the most famous of these books are the two books of jurist Muhammad Ali Ozal (Al-Hozali), i.e. The Book of the Basin and the Book of Sea of Tears, the first of which deals with the rules of jurisprudence according to the Maliki school of thought, and the second deals with issues of Sufism. They were two thousand in the eighteenth century with the tongue of Tashelhit and Donna with the Arabic letter. It is worth mentioning that the language of these texts does not differ in any way from modern Amazigh in terms of its morphology, lexicon and syntax. Perhaps the most famous of these books are the two books of jurist Muhammad Ali Ozal (Al-Hozali), i.e. The Book of the Basin and the Book of Sea of Tears, the first of which deals with the rules of jurisprudence according to the Maliki school of thought, and the second deals with issues of Sufism. They were two thousand in the eighteenth century with the tongue of Tashelhit and Donna with the Arabic letter. It is worth mentioning that the language of these texts does not differ in any way from modern Amazigh in terms of its morphology, lexicon and syntax. Perhaps the most famous of these books are the two books of jurist Muhammad Ali Ozal (Al-Hozali), i.e. The Book of the Basin and the Book of Sea of Tears, the first of which deals with the rules of jurisprudence according to the Maliki school of thought, and the second deals with issues of Sufism. They were two thousand in the eighteenth century with the tongue of Tashelhit and Donna with the Arabic letter. It is worth mentioning that the language of these texts does not differ in any way from modern Amazigh in terms of its morphology, lexicon and syntax.
The Moroccan Association for Research and Cultural Exchange has contributed to the issuance of a number of publications, including Arabic calligraphy and the Aratan method of writing. A group of Amazigh associations followed the example of this association in adopting Arabic calligraphy, such as the Cultural Breakthrough Association in Nador, which issued a poetic publication written in Arabic calligraphy.
Among the difficulties posed by writing Tamazight through Arabic calligraphy, we encounter the problem of writing the hamza and writing the formed letters, and we see that the "Aratan" method is better in writing Tamazight in the Arabic language.
So here are - if - some Amazigh examples written in the "Aratan" way:
Ezran _ Ezran (poems)
Yamouth - Yamouth (died)
Amzkun _ Amazgon (theatre)
Arno _ Orino (my heart)
C- Amazigh writing in Latin script:
However, the Latin script that was used in issuing a group of newspapers and magazines such as “Agrao” newspaper, “Tassavout” and “Twiza” and the magazine “Tifinagh” by Uzi Ahradan … major changes were made to it at the level of writing to suit the Amazigh pronunciation, so this Latin script became distorted by the abundance of dots and symbols iconography above and below the letterhead; Which made it a difficult line to read if it was not accompanied by a phonetic linguistic table that humiliates the reading of the letters, as we noticed while dealing with a group of rural Amazigh poetry collections, whether issued by the “Izoran / Roots” association, such as the Diwan of Maymoon al-Walid, the Diwan of Muhammad and al-Sheikh, and the Diwan of Muhammad Shasha, or issued in Morocco Such as the Divan of Fatima Al-Wriashi, the Diwan of Ahmed Al-Zayani, the Diwans of Rashida Maysa Al-Maraki, and the Diwan of Saeed Al-Frad.
One of the difficulties posed by the Latin script, in addition to its ideological and colonial loads, is that many Amazigh readers do not understand French, and here the pressing question arises: For whom do these people write? Is it for the French audience or for the Moroccans? Are these Frenchmen, in fact, a very small elite, or are they writing for the Moroccan Amazighs who only master the Arabic language and find it very difficult to understand the French language?! How will they understand a foreign line full of dots and letters that never express the Amazigh letters in a scientific and accurate way? Therefore, it is better to write Amazigh in Tifinagh script, because it is a symbol of local identity, and the foundation of the inherited Amazigh civilization. We must only develop and adapt it to keep pace with all technical, scientific, literary, artistic and knowledge developments.
6- Characteristics of modern Amazigh writing :
A picture of the Amazigh alphabet:
The Amazigh script (Tifinagh), which was approved by the Royal Institute of Amazigh Culture in Morocco (IRCAM) after it was recognized by the International Aiswa Organization, consists of 33 letters, of which 29 are silent and 4 are vowels. Vowels are composed of four vowels, namely: the fatha vowels - a - (awal, aman / water), the accusative vowels u - - (awar / heart, wadum / face), and the sukoon vowels e - - (shia movement) that are used when repeating letters The consonant (bad / stand, may / my son, asarzam / the window), and the kasra vowels -i- (erav / pig).
And the vowels are prepared in the form of circles and half-circles, and the number of letters is seven, and they are: Al-Ra (Abriz / The Way), Al-Ba (Baba / Abi), Al-Ha (Bohru / Al-Assad), Al-Sad (Asameez / Al-Bard), Al-Seen (Was / Al-Youm), and Al-Shin (Oshan). / the wolf), and the stressed r (bara / outside). There are 11 letters in the form of vertical and horizontal lines: Al-Nun (Aman/Water), Al-Jim (Aajana/Sky), Lam (Tamlalat/The Egg), Ta’a (Tafukt/Sun), Al-Mim (Tamzida/Mosque), and Al-Za’ (Zahir/Grapes). Al-Ta (potato/potato), Al-Fa (Figgar/serpent), Al-Waw (Awal/talk), Al-Ain (the pillar/stick or pillar), Al-Ghain (Igzar/river), and Dal (Adrar/Mountain).
There are four slanted lines, such as the dal (Adrar/Mountain), the Ha (Isabah/Jamil), the Kha’a (Akham/The House), the Ya’a (Ishfa’i/The Milk), and 5 letters in the form of triangles such as Ghaf (Argaz), Goa (Aazgag/ Al-Ahmar), and Al-Kaf. (taskort/hopscotch), and koa (eatacore/insults)Al-Mahfaza), and two different lines such as Al-Zai (Eazy / Fly), and Al-Zay Al-Mashddah (Eazro / Al-Hajar).
It is known that the Amazigh writing, as approved by the Royal Institute of Amazigh Culture, starts from left to right, similar to the Latin writing.
It is noted that the Royal Institute of Amazigh Culture, when it tried to standardize the Amazigh language and standardize its teaching in didactics and pedagogy, excluded from its alphabet some Amazigh letters found in the rural language, such as: (Thraithmas / the name of a woman), and the letter Dhal such as Sad Abrith / the road), and the whispering oral letter P, which is considered a letter An outsider and a distinct unit in the Amazigh countryside.
Conclusion:
This is a brief overview of the course of Amazigh writing and its long history, however, this writing requires the Moroccan Ministry of National Education and the Royal Institute of Amazigh Culture to teach it to Moroccan citizens in general and Amazighs in particular in order to view and read Amazigh productions, and this will not be done without a sincere will and good intention in educating The Amazigh language and the imposition of writing it in schools and educational institutions and training all teachers in it, whatever their teaching materials, to learn and master it in order to contribute to the process of receiving, assimilating and consuming every Amazigh product, without forgetting to enter this writing into personal computers so that all intellectuals and learners can use it in their communicative discourses.
Tifinagh and its presence in the culture of local customs and artifacts
In addition, this writing cannot impose itself except by achieving a cultural accumulation in the field of production and creativity, and its use in branding technical and scientific inventions, and its use in issuing technical dictionaries and special dictionaries. There must also be an intense collective activity to motivate the Amazighs to use the Tifinagh script for their purposes and fulfill their needs, and to introduce it along the lines of the “Tifinagh caravan”, and the need for the Royal Institute of Amazigh Culture to open up to all Amazigh actors without exception or exclusion in order to enrich, develop, enrich and encourage Amazigh writing, otherwise Amazigh will be buried. and write it in the future.
The entry of the Amazigh language with its Tifinagh letters into informatics and public life despite the obstacles
References:
[- Dr. Sobhi Al-Saleh: Studies in Philology, Dar Al-Ilm for Millions, Beirut, Lebanon, Ninth Edition, 1981 AD, pp.: 43-44; - Ahmed Bokus: Amazigh language and cultural policy in Morocco, Tariq Bin Ziyad Center, 1 edition, November 2003 AD, Videbrandt Press, Rabat, p: 15;
- Ahmed Bokus: Amazigh language and cultural policy in Morocco, Tariq Bin Ziyad Center, 1 edition, November 2003 AD, Videbrandt Press, Rabat, p: 15;
- Charles Andre Julian: History of North Africa, Arabization: Muhammad Mazali and Al-Bashir Bin Salama, the Tunisian Publishing House, first edition 1969, p.: 66; Bouziani Al-Darraji: The Amazigh Tribes, Part One, p. 38;
- Muhammad Shafiq: A Glimpse of the Thirty-Three Centuries of the History of the Amazighs, Dar Al Kalam, Rabat, first edition 1989 AD, p. 62; - Abd al-Rahman al-Jilali: General History of Algeria, Dar al-Thaqafa, fourth edition, Beirut, 1980, pp. 30-141; - Dr. Izz al-Din al-Manasra: The Amazigh Question in Algeria and Morocco, Dar al-Shorouk, Jordan, first edition 1999 AD, p: 69; - See dr. Muhammad al-Shami (Sad problematic Amazigh writing), the work of the first session of the Summer University Association in Agadir, Fadalah Press, Muhammadiyah, first edition, 1982 AD. - See: (Amazigh language), Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia, digital site; Bouziani Al-Darraji: The Amazigh Tribes, Part One, p. 35;
- Dr. Muhammad al-Shami (Sad Problematic Amazigh Writing), Proceedings of the first session of the Summer University Association in Agadir, Fadalah Press, Muhammadiyah, first edition, 1982 AD, p: 155;
- Dr. Muhammad al-Shami (Sad Problematic Amazigh Writing), pp. 159-160; Bouziani Al-Darraji: The Amazigh Tribes, Part One, p. 35; - Muhammad Shafiq: A Glimpse of Thirty-Three Centuries of the History of the Amazighs, Dar Al Kalam, Rabat, Edition 1989 AD, pp. 61-62; - Muhammad Shafiq: A glimpse of thirty-three centuries of the history of the Berbers,, p.: 62;
Bouziani Al-Darraji: The Amazigh Tribes, Part One, Dar Al-Kitab Al-Arabi, Algeria, 2003 AD, p. 34; - Bouziani Al-Darraji: Himself, p.: 48; - Ahmed Bokus: Berber language and cultural policy in Morocco, p.: 37.]