Religion in Japan...the early stages of Japan's official transformation into a Buddhist country
The leaders of sixth-century Japan made the historic decision to import Buddhism, a task that was not easy to achieve. In the third part of this series on Buddhism in Japan, the author highlights how Chinese Buddhism established its roots in Japan and the changes that occurred in the new environment.
Importing Buddhism as a sign of belonging to the Chinese cultural sphere
By the 6th century Japan had begun to develop a sense of being a unified state, but there was still significant disagreement at court over how to govern this state. Essentially, the debate boiled down to the following two questions: Should Japan aspire to become a member of China's prestigious cultural and political sphere, or should it reject outside influences and try to go it alone with a distinctively Japanese approach? This controversy eventually led to a military clash that ended with the victory of the wing that advocates establishing closer ties with China. In the wake of this wing's victory, the country's elite became increasingly active in their efforts to import Chinese culture and aspired to build a system of government according to the Chinese model.
Buddhism had its luster in this context as a diplomatic tool to signal Japan's accession to the Chinese sphere. The country's leaders believed that by becoming a Buddhist country like China, Japan could present itself as a legitimate member of China's cultural sphere of influence. These are some of the considerations behind the decision to import Buddhism as a government project.
But what did Buddhism look like in China at that time? From the first and second centuries of the Common Era (present), a variety of Buddhist doctrines reached China via the Silk Road. Many schools of Mahayana Buddhism have arisen, each taking a different view on which of these various traditions represent the 'true teachings' of the Buddha. Beginning in the sixth century, there was a movement to organize these multiple teachings and bring them together as an integrated unit. The movement sought to find a logical understanding of the doctrines espoused by these various teachings and to achieve a comprehensive understanding of the wider Buddhist world, while accepting the differing doctrines of all these different schools. One of the most important examples of this movement is the Mahayana school known as Tiantai Buddhism (in Japanese “Tendai”). Saicho (767-822) transmitted Tendai's teachings to Japan in the ninth century, which later led to the development of many of the most important schools of Japanese Buddhism. I will address this topic in a later part of the current series.
' Zen ' - a new form of Buddhism originating in China (where it was called 'Chan') - was still a new and relatively unimportant school at the time. Like Esoteric Buddhism, which represents the final form of Buddhism in India, this form of Buddhism did not spread widely in China. But in later centuries Zen Buddhism and Esoteric Buddhism flourished in China and had an important influence on the development of Japanese Buddhism. But these developments came later. At the time Buddhism was imported to Japan, none of these traditions had yet become influential.
Challenges of importing a community of monks
As we have seen, Japan made the decision to import Buddhism as a government project in the sixth century. But what does it mean for the state to officially import religion? According to the traditional interpretation, Buddhism consists of three elements: the Buddha, the Dharma (or law), and the Sangha (or community of monks). Importing Buddhism meant bringing all three of these elements from China. Only after these elements come together will Japan be recognized as a Buddhist country.
Importing the first two elements—Buddha and Dharma—was the easy part of the process. Buddha is represented by Buddhist images, while Dharma is represented by the texts of the Sutras and other holy books. All it took to fulfill these first two conditions was to load some Buddhist images and scriptures onto a boat and bring them to Japan. This was relatively easy to do. The third element was more difficult. The Sangha is a community of Buddhist monks, so importing the Sangha to Japan would mean bringing in large numbers of Buddhist monks from China.
According to the rules laid down by Shakyamuni in the Vinaya Pitaka texts, a quorum for the formation of a Sangha required the presence of four monks. Four male monks can form a male Sangha, while four nuns can form a women's Sangha. But there is another rule that states that a layman needs permission from at least 10 monks in order to become a priest. This meant that in order to create a sustainable Sangha community in Japan, it was necessary to convince at least 10 monks to make an extremely dangerous journey by sea from China to Japan. This was the difficult problem that Japan had to overcome to officially become a Buddhist country.
Jianzhen arrives and Japan officially becomes a Buddhist state
Regent Shotoku Taishi (574-662) was among the prominent figures who worked hard to import Buddhism to Japan, but it proved impossible to bring a community of monks to Japan during his lifetime. Although he is reputed to be the person who brought Buddhism to Japan, in reality he only succeeded in importing Buddhist images and scriptures. In subsequent years, many temples were built throughout Japan, and Buddhist rituals and prayers began to be performed for peace and safety of the nation. But a sustainable monastic community was not established in Japan until much later. It was not until the year 754 that the problem was finally resolved, and Japan finally became a fully-fledged Buddhist state in the official sense.
The main figure in achieving this historical achievement was the monk “Jianzhen (in Japanese, Ganjin)” (688-763), who was famous in China at that time for his knowledge and piety. Jianzhen, who was full of enthusiasm to spread the Buddha's teachings, responded to Japan's request and resolved to undertake the perilous journey. In addition to being a specialist in the Rishu school, which studied and practiced the rules of ascetic discipline set forth in the Vinaka, Jianzhen was also a respected priest with a well-developed knowledge and understanding of the various schools of Buddhist philosophy. He also had many disciples, so it was easy to bring in the 10 or more monks that Japan needed. But Jianzhen's attempts to travel to Japan met with repeated setbacks due to shipwrecks and other disasters. He finally managed to reach Japan on his fifth attempt, and was blind by then.
The Yamato court in Nara received Jianzhen and his companions as guests of honor. Jianzhen and his fellow monks, who constitute a quorum, officially granted priest status to the Japanese applicants. This was the moment when the Sangha community was born in Japan, and the moment when Japan officially became a Buddhist country.
The beginning of Buddhism as a state religion
But the court's position in the years that followed did not always accord with Jianzhen's wishes. The Japanese court wanted the establishment of a sustainable Japanese sangha as one of the conditions for Japan's recognition as a Buddhist state. Bringing Jianzhen and at least 10 monks to Japan was a necessary step in this direction. Once these conditions were met and Japan was able to raise its own monks, the court's next priority became the use of Buddhism as an instrument of political rule and control.
As a corollary of this, the kami and local spirits who were worshiped in Japan before the introduction of Buddhism continued to be respected and venerated. The old religion was not replaced by new imported Buddhism. Both pre-existing kami beliefs and Buddhism newly imported from China were recognized as appropriate principles of worship, and were eventually combined to form a new syncretism. This ultimately led to the crystallization of a typically Japanese view in which all these various deities were different manifestations of the same supernatural beings. This syncretic fusion of Buddhism and indigenous traditions remains deeply rooted in Japanese society today, where the culture happily embraces both Shintoism and Buddhism, often feeling no need to choose between them.
Jianzhen came to Japan hoping that he and his disciples would form the foundations through which Buddhism would spread throughout the country. But the court was looking for something different. For the court, Buddhism was something that would play an important role as part of the apparatus of state power. Buddhist monks were state-approved clergy and their job was to pray for the country's security and prosperity. They were also diplomats who played an important role in cultural exchanges with China.
Considering that the monks were in a position similar to that of state officials or government employees, it was not envisaged that they would be allowed to form a sangha and govern themselves as an independent community according to the Vinaya Pitaka. This refusal to grant autonomy to monks was a failure to understand an essential part of Shakyamuni's teachings. Buddha instructed his followers to distance themselves from secular life and seek refuge in a community of monks where they could work to bring about change within themselves by focusing on their spiritual bases within the community. What made matters worse was that the Sangha community did not even have the authority to appoint new monks, as the authorities monopolized this right for themselves. The daily life of the monks was not governed by their own rules of conduct, but by the laws of the state.
The first form of Buddhism in Japan, which took root in Nara, was a religion administered by, by, and for the state. This formed the starting point for the future development of Japanese Buddhism. In the next section, I want to highlight how this Japanese form of religion developed and changed in the centuries that followed.
(Originally published in Japanese, translation from English. Banner image: A portrait of Jianzhen in the Jianzhen Memorial Hall in Yangzhou, Jiangsu Province, China. The memorial hall is modeled on the “Kando (Golden Hall)” of Toshodaiji Temple in Nara, which Jianzhen founded in 8th century. Image courtesy of Bixta)
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