Mercenary War: Africa's Rebellion Against Carthage
Rebel leader Mathus, drawn by Victor-Armand Poirson, for the historical novel Salammbô, by Gustave Flaubert
After Carthage's defeat in the First Punic War , foreign soldiers who had fought in the Carthaginian army in Sicily began a mutiny, demanding their wages. The cities of North Africa, which were dominated by the Carthaginians, then seized the opportunity to rebel against Carthage.
Context
While Carthage was at war with Rome in Sicily, the Carthaginian general Hanno the Great led several military campaigns to expand Carthaginian territory in Africa. In order to finance the war effort, Hanno imposed a heavy tax on the cities and regions under Carthaginian control: the people there were forced to give half of their agricultural production as a war tax. These measures were liable to cause famine in certain areas.
The Carthaginian army was mostly made up of foreign fighters, as Carthaginian citizens only fought when there was a direct threat to the city of Carthage. Most of the fighters were North African Libyans and Numidians, with a small number of Iberians and Gauls.
At the end of the First Punic War , the Carthaginian army in Sicily consisted of about 20,000 men who had been evacuated to Carthage. The city still owed them several months of unpaid wages, which they expected to receive upon their arrival in Carthage. When the Carthaginian authorities tried to negotiate with them for less than they had agreed, this led to their revolt.
When the news spread, the Libyans and Numidians, who had been suffering under Carthaginian rule for centuries, saw this revolt as an opportunity to regain their freedom. An army of 70,000 men from all over North Africa joined the initial rebels.
The leaders of the rebel army were Spendius, a former Roman slave; Mathus, a Libyan soldier; and Autaritus, a leader of the Gallic mercenaries.
Mercenary War (238-241)
Troop movements during the war
The rebels' first undertaking was to lay siege to the cities of Utica and Hippodiartus (Bizerte), two cities allied with Carthage. The Carthaginian response was led by Hanno the Great.
In early 240, Hanno the Great laid siege to Utica and entered the city in triumph. His army was still celebrating their victory when the rebels attacked and drove them out of the city. For the rest of that year, the army fought the rebels intermittently, without achieving any major victory.
Because of Hanno the Great's repeated failures, Carthage raised a smaller army under Hamilcar Barca (the last Carthaginian commander in Sicily and father of Hannibal Barca). His army fought to the west and south of Carthage. Hamilcar and Hanno were officially co-commanders, but they did not work together. While Hanno was tough on the rebels, Hamilcar proved more diplomatic, promising amnesty to rebel leaders who joined him and being willing to make concessions to rebel cities. This enabled him to bring several cities back to Carthage without the use of force.
The Numidian leader Naravas (brother of Gaia, father of Masinissa ), who had fought alongside Hamilcar in Sicily and admired his bravery, broke away from the rebels and joined the Carthaginian army with 2,000 of his cavalry. To prevent further defections, the rebel army tortured to death 700 Carthaginian prisoners, including General Gisco, who had signed the peace treaty with Rome in Sicily. Hamilcar then responded by killing all the prisoners. After these massacres, the hatred between the two sides was so strong that no compromise was possible.
In early 239, the Carthaginian garrisons in Sardinia also rebelled and killed the Carthaginian governor of the island. The troops sent to retake the island joined the rebellion and killed the remaining Carthaginian population.
Coin with image of rebel leaders
The next blow to the Carthaginians came when Utica and Hippo Daertus joined the rebellion, between March and September of 239. The people of Utica offered their city to Rome, but Rome refused, as they were not prepared to wage another war against Carthage.
During the same year, the armies of Hamilcar and Hanno were reunited, but the two commanders disagreed over the strategy to be followed. According to Carthaginian custom, the army voted to decide who would be their commander, and Hamilcar won the title.
In early 238, the rebels were forced to lift the siege of Carthage and return to Tunis. Shortly afterwards, at the Battle of the Saw, Hamilcar managed to ambush part of the rebel army in a mountain pass, where they were all killed. This battle would play a decisive role in the final victory.
Rebel leaders crucified during siege of Tunisia
After this battle, Hamilcar laid siege to Tunis, which was the headquarters of this rebellion, but a night-time attack by the rebels forced him to lift the siege.
During this time, the Carthaginian Senate negotiated a reconciliation between Hamilcar and Hanno. The two generals agreed to serve together. The rebels, realizing that they would not be able to resist a united Carthaginian army, fled from Tunis to Leptis Parva (Lamta, near Monastir), one of the first cities to rebel. The Carthaginian army pursued them, and the final battle took place in late 238, in which all remaining rebel fighters were killed. This was the end of the rebellion.
The last remaining rebel cities immediately sought to reach an agreement with Carthage. The last of them would be Utica and Hippo Diartus, because they feared paying the price for their betrayal.
Implications
In Sardinia, the natives rose up against the rebel forces in 237 and drove them from the island. The rebels then fled to the continent and asked Rome for help. This time, Rome agreed to intervene, taking control of Sardinia and Corsica. Carthaginian resentment over this Roman invasion of Sardinia contributed greatly to the subsequent resumption of war between Rome and Carthage.
After the Mercenary War ended, Hamilcar went to Spain, where he spent the rest of his life trying to consolidate Carthaginian hegemony, in anticipation of another war against Rome.
The Mercenary War inspired the historical novel Salammbô by French writer Gustave Flaubert.
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